Traditional usage Anadenanthera peregrina 1916 Anadenanthera peregrina 1916 Archeological evidence shows Anadenanthera beans have been used as hallucinogens for thousands of years. The oldest clear evidence of use comes from smoking pipes made of puma bone (Felis Concolor) found with Anadenanthera beans at Inca Cueva, a site in the northwest of Humahuaca in the Puna border of the Province of Jujuy, Argentina. The pipes were found to contain the hallucinogen DMT, one of the compounds found in Anadenanthera beans. Radiocarbon testing of the material gave a date of 2130 B.C., suggesting Anadenanthera use as a hallucinogen is over 4000 years old.[11] Snuff trays and tubes similar to those commonly used for yopo were found in the central Peruvian coast dating back to 1200 B.C., suggesting that insufflation of Anadenanthera beans is a more recent method of use.[12] Some indigenous peoples of the Orinoco basin in Colombia, Venezuela and possibly in the southern part of the Brazilian Amazon make use of yopo snuff for spiritual healing. Yopo snuff was also widely used in ceremonial contexts in the Caribbean area, including Cuba and La Española, up to the Spanish Conquest. Yopo snuff is usually blown into the user's nostrils by another person through bamboo tubes or sometimes snuffed by the user using bird bone tubes. Blowing is more effective as this method allows more powder to enter the nose and is said to be less irritating. In some areas the unprocessed ground beans are snuffed or smoked producing a much weaker effect with stronger physical symptoms. Some tribes use yopo along with Banisteriopsis caapi to increase and prolong the visionary effects, creating an experience similar to that of ayahuasca. [edit] Snuff preparation To make the psychedelic snuff called yopo, the black beans from the bean pods of these trees are first toasted until the beans pop like popcorn breaking the bean's husk. The roasting process facilitates removal of the husk and makes the beans easier to grind into a powder. The bean's husk is usually removed because it is difficult to powderise. The bean is then ground with a mortar and pestle into a powder and mixed with a natural form of calcium hydroxide (lime) or calcium oxide (from certain types of ashes, calcined shells, etc.). This mix is then moistened to a consistency similar to bread dough, using a small amount of water. If calcium oxide is used, the water will react with it to form calcium hydroxide. Once moistened, it is kneaded into a ball for several minutes. If given enough time, calcium hydroxide will react with bufotenine and replace the hydrogen bond at the five position of bufotenine (5-HO-DMT) with calcium, forming Ca + 5-O-DMT, also known as calcium bufotenate (or calcium bufotenoxide). This is a common chemical reaction that occurs with all phenolic compounds when reacted with calcium hydroxide for expended periods of time (see phenol for more information). Several hours are needed for the reaction to take place. Ca + 5-O-DMT is less toxic, and produces effects more like DMT and Psilocin than the classic toxic effects of bufotenine. Its effects last normally 2-3 hours. After kneading, it is then left to sit for several hours to several days, depending on the local customs. During this period most of the excess calcium hydroxide reacts with the carbon dioxide in the air to form less caustic calcium carbonate (carbonatation). The more modern non-traditional use of baking soda or ammonia as a substitute for calcium hydroxide has been used with limited success. A nearly identical snuff called Vilca, can be prepared from the related Anadenanthera colubrina. [edit] Entheogenic effects Shamans use yopo in a spiritual context much like ayahuasca is used. Use of yopo may actually predate Ayahuasca usage. Many shamans believe the visionary dream-state induced by yopo allows them to contact spirits in the spirit world to gain knowledge about medicinal plants, how to treat an illness, etc. The effects of properly made insufflated yopo are similar to the effects of vaporized DMT but much longer in duration. The effects begin approximately 15-30 minutes after insufflation and can last up to 2-3 hours. The insufflation process can be painful due to remaining calcium hydroxide, especially when using snuff that hasn’t been properly aged. The effects are can be visual in nature, causing the user to see colorful patterns, objects seen with the eyes may appear to be swirling, transforming into other objects, changing colors, etc. The user may see colorful 3-dimensional moving patterns with the eyes opened or closed. Some users experience more visual effects from yopo than from DMT. The user may hear dreamy sounds and voices. With the eyes closed or in a dark setting, users may experience full dream-like phenomena, interacting with imaginary places, people, etc. The visions are seen as dreamy or spiritual in nature and do not appear as though they are real. The over effects are generally relaxing. Users often feel a pleasant tingling sensation throughout the body similar to those felt while using Yohimbe. The mind normally remains clear and focused during the entire experience. Some users may experience transient nausea. At high doses, users may feel sweaty, become nervous, experience difficulty it walking, lose motor control, and may enter into a trance state. Shamans sometimes combine yopo with Banisteriopsis caapi. The Banisteriopsis caapi is usually chewed before, during, and after yopo is insufflated. This intensifies and prolongs the visionary state produced by yopo. The combined effects are more dream-like and very similar to ayahuasca.