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Leonotis leonurus, also known as Wild Dagga or Lion's Tail, is a species of plant in the Leonotis genus and the Lamiaceae (mint) family native to southern Africa. Contents [hide] * 1 Related Species * 2 Uses o 2.1 Medicinal Uses * 3 Chemical Constituents * 4 See also * 5 External links [edit] Related Species There are about thirty species of plants from the family Lamiaceae in the genus Leonotis, but only one other, L. nepetifolia (Klip Dagga), shares the entheogenic properties of L. leonurus. The main difference between the species is that L. nepetifolia's flowers sprout from a round prickly ball. [edit] Uses [edit] Medicinal Uses Leonotis has been used to treat various conditions including epilepsy, diabetes, bites and stings, skin diseases, muscular cramps, respiratory disorders, hypertension, headaches, viral hepatitis, intestinal worms, obesity and eczema [1]. In 1992, Wild Dagga was shown to reduce breast tumors in mice. In most common uses the leaves are picked, dried, and then brewed as a tea. [edit] Chemical Constituents Leonurine Leonurine * Leonurine, a mild vasodilator and smooth muscle relaxant.

Lagochilus inebrians, commonly known as inebriating mint, intoxicating mint or Turkistan mint, is a member of the mint family Labiatae. This species is reported to produce intoxicating and sedative effects due to its content of lagochiline. It is used as such by Tajik, Tatar, Turkoman, and Uzbek tribesman during feasts and holidays. It is traditionally consumed as a tea. It is little known outside of its home country of Uzbekistan, though there is some budding interest on the part of entheogenic-minded Westerners.

Kratom (Mitragyna speciosa) is a medicinal leaf harvested from a large tree native to Southeast Asia in the Rubiaceae, first documented by Dutch colonial botanist Korthals. It is botanically related to the Corynanthe, Cinchona and Uncaria genera and shares some similar biochemistry. It is in the same family as coffee, and the psychoactive plant Psychotria viridis. Other species in the Mitragyna genus are used medicinally in Africa, and also used for their wood. It is used for its psychoactive effects in its native region, with some use elsewhere in the world. In Southeast Asia the fresh leaves are usually chewed, often continuously, by workers or manual laborers seeking a numbing, stimulating effect. Elsewhere, the leaves are often made into a tea or extracted into water and then evaporated into a tar that can be swallowed. Kratom is not often smoked, although this method does provide some effect. Kratom contains many alkaloids including mitragynine (once thought to be the primary active), mitraphylline, and 7-hydroxymitragynine (which is currently the most likely candidate for the primary active chemical in the plant). Although structurally related to yohimbine and other tryptamines, its pharmacology is quite different, acting primarily as a mu-opioid receptor agonist. It also shares some adrenergic receptor activity similar to that of yohimbine. Kratom also contains alkaloids found in uña de gato, which are thought to play a beneficial role on the immune system and lower blood pressure, as well as epicatechin, a powerful antioxidant also found in dark chocolate and closely related to the EGCG that gives green tea its beneficial effects. Other active chemicals in kratom include raubasine (best known from Rauwolfia serpentina) and some yohimbe alkaloids such as corynantheidine. Kratom has many potential medicinal uses, for example as a low grade analgesic comparable to codeine or propoxyphene, as an alternative to methadone, and as a source of other chemicals with a wide range of beneficial activities which could be isolated from the psychoactive constituents. Contents [hide] * 1 Effects * 2 Addiction and Habituation * 3 Minor Alkaloids * 4 Legal Status * 5 See also * 6 References * 7 External links [edit] Effects Dried kratom leaf Dried kratom leaf Kratom's pharmacology shares some elements of the activity of other substances including opiates and yohimbine. The comparison to opiates is valid at doses high enough to produce these effects. Kratom has the ability to alleviate withdrawal in people dependent on opiates owing to the mu receptor agonism of mitragynine and 7-hydroxymitragynine. Kratom may cause constipation at these doses. It produces analgesia similar to weaker opiates such as codeine. Kratom also has a yohimbe-like stimulant activity, and uncaria-like immunostimulant activity. Kratom's effects are reported to be relatively short-lived, typically fading after a few hours. Some experience nausea after drinking kratom tea similar to the side effects caused by other opiates. Kratom's extremely bitter taste also probably contributes to the nausea, which can be remedied with large amounts of sugar, honey, or artificial sweeteners. [edit] Addiction and Habituation Kratom use is potentially habit-forming, and people who use it continuously may experience withdrawals upon cessation. Ethnological researchers conducting a survey of long-time kratom users in Southeast Asia reported a belief that users may develop dark patches of skin discoloration on their cheeks, however there seems no actual documentation of this occurring. No long term human studies have been done, so any assessment of long term consequences of kratom must be extrapolated from animal studies and the few reports from anthropologists. The potential addictiveness of kratom's primary active component, 7-hydroxymitragynine has been demonstrated in a study by Matsumoto et al.[1] In an animal model, this study demonstrated tolerance, cross-tolerance with morphine, and naloxone-precipitated withdrawal from 7-hydroxymitragynine. The withdrawal symptoms were nearly identical to those from morphine, indicating that the drug might produce dependence in humans similar to other opiates. Anecdotal evidence (see next paragraph) would seem to lend credence to this theory; however, no human research has been done and many of those people reporting addiction are using kratom either as a home remedy for opiate addiction or in conjunction with an ongoing opiate dependence, which makes scientifically definitive claims difficult at this time. Anecdotal evidence of kratom helping with opiate withdrawal is widespread on the Internet, most often found in various chat forums that are either dedicated to kratom or recreational drug use in general. However some people claim that the kratom withdrawal syndrome resembles that of opiates, only milder and shorter-lasting. Some people have mentioned mild depression following cessation of physical symptoms, and have noted that this makes quitting kratom use very difficult. The physical withdrawal symptoms most often noted are fatigue and agitation. Other opiate-like withdrawal symptoms have been mentioned (e.g. sweating, chills, diarrhea) but are apparently much milder and less common than those caused by withdrawal from opiates, if in fact they appear at all. Physical symptoms of kratom withdrawal seem to last up to four or five days, then cease completely. Other than the aforementioned depression, protracted withdrawal episodes are rarely mentioned. [edit] Minor Alkaloids A young Kratom bush grown from seed. A young Kratom bush grown from seed. It is interesting to note that whole Mitragyna speciosa leaf also contains a partial mu-opioid agonist (9-hydroxycorynantheidine), and a mu-opioid antagonist (corynantheidine).[2] The combination of a full agonist (such as 7-hydroxymitragynine and Mitragynine) with an antagonist or partial agonist may be compared to the use of partial opioid-agonists to interrupt opiate addiction. Buprenorphine is one such example of a partial agonist/antagonist that is FDA approved to treat addiction. It may be that ingesting whole kratom does not have the same addictive potential as 7-OHM alone. Furthermore, kratom contains at least one alkaloid (rhynchophylline) that is a calcium channel blocker, and reduces NMDA-induced current. There is considerable research as to the role of NMDA receptor activity in the formation of dependence, and the symptoms of withdrawal. In 2005, Inturrisi demonstrated that co-administration of d-methadone (the isomer that lacks opioid activity, but is an NMDA antagonist) in small doses with morphine prevented the development of morphine tolerance in rats.[3] The presence of rhynchophylline in kratom should be investigated in order to determine its potential to modify the development of dependence.

Sceletium tortuosum is a succulent herb commonly found in South Africa, which is also known as Kanna, Channa, Kougoed (Kauwgoed) - which literally means, 'chew(able) things/goodies' or 'something to chew'. The plant has been used by South African pastoralists and hunter-gatherers as a mood-altering substance from prehistoric times. The first known written account of the plant's use was in 1662 by van Riebeeck. The traditionally prepared dried sceletium was often chewed and the saliva swallowed, but it has also been made into gel caps, teas and tinctures. It has also been used as a snuff and smoked.[2] Contents [hide] * 1 Effects * 2 Pharmacology * 3 Interactions * 4 References * 5 External links [edit] Effects Sceletium is known to elevate mood and decrease anxiety, stress and tension. It has also been used as an appetite suppressant by shepherds walking long distances in arid areas. In intoxicating doses it can cause euphoria, initially with stimulation and later with sedation. Users also report increased personal insight, interpersonal ease and a meditative, grounded feeling without any perceptual dulling. Others have noted enhanced tactile and sexual response. High doses produce distinct inebriation and stimulation often followed by sedation. The plant is not considered hallucinogenic, contrary to some literature on the subject, and no severe adverse effects have been documented. [edit] Pharmacology Main article: Mesembrine S. tortuosum can cause significant mood-elevation and anxiolytic (anti-anxiety) action. In doses as low as 50 mg users have reported improvements in mood, decreased anxiety, relaxation and a sense of well-being. At higher dosages near 100 mg, kanna acts as a calming euphoriant and empathogen. The alkaloids contained in S. tortuosum believed to possess psychoactivity include: mesembrine, mesembrenone, mesembrenol and tortuosamine.[2] Mesembrine is a major alkaloid present in Sceletium tortuosum, which has been shown to be a potent serotonin reuptake inhibitor (more so than imipramine),[3] and a PDE4-inhibitor (less so than rolipram).[4] Sceletium tortuosum contains about 1-1.5% total alkaloids. There is about 0.3% mesembrine in the leaves and 0.86% in the stems of the plant.[1] [edit] Interactions Little is known about the interactions of S. tortuosum, although it should not be combined with SSRIs, MAOIs, cardiac or psychiatric medications. Headaches in conjunction with alcohol have been noted with kanna use. Some reports suggest a synergy with cannabis

Calea zacatechichi, also known as Dream Herb, Cheech, and Bitter Grass, is a plant used by the indigenous Chontal of the Mexican state of Oaxaca for oneiromancy (a form of divination based on dreams.) It has been scientifically demonstrated that extracts of this plant increase reaction times and the frequency and/or recollection of dreams[1] versus placebo and diazepam. It is also employed by the Chontal people as a medicinal herb against gastrointestinal disorders, and is used as an appetizer, cathartic anti-dysentery remedy, and as a fever-reducing agent. Contents [hide] * 1 Use o 1.1 Preparation & Dosage * 2 Cultivation * 3 Law * 4 References * 5 External links o 5.1 Images [edit] Use The Chontal medicine men, who assert that this plant is capable of "clarifying the senses", call it thle-pela-kano, meaning "leaf of God". Whenever they desire to know the cause of an illness or the location of a distant or lost person, dry leaves of the plant are smoked, drunk in infusions, and put under the pillow before going to sleep. Reportedly, the answer to the question comes in a dream.[2] [edit] Preparation & Dosage Crushed dried leaves are steeped in hot water, and the resulting tea is drunk slowly, after which the user lies down in a quiet place and smokes a cigarette of the dried leaves of the same plant. The human dose for divinatory purposes reported by the Chontal people is a handful of the dried plant. The user knows that he or she has taken a large enough dose when a sense of tranquility and drowsiness is experienced and when he or she hears the beats of his or her own heart and pulse. Calea is a rather bitter herb. Many users prefer to smoke it rather than drinking the tea. There are no reports of hangover or other undesirable side effects. [edit] Cultivation A C. zacatechichi cutting developing new roots in a humidity tent A C. zacatechichi cutting developing new roots in a humidity tent Growing Calea from seeds is a difficult task, the most common way to grow it is propagation from cuttings. The Calea plant likes full sun, good drained soils and a lot of irrigation. A good soil mix for calea cultivation is: 1/3 of a rich substrate, 1/3 vermiculite and 1/3 of humus. Propagation from seeds can be tried with the following method: Sow the seeds in a pot with the soil mix indicated as above. Don't cover the seeds, moisten the seeds with water and cover with a plastic bag. This little greenhouse needs from 4 to 6 hours of light to germinate. If the seeds dry out during this period, the plants will not germinate. [edit] Law Calea zacatechichi is an unscheduled substance in the United States, meaning that it is completely legal to grow and sell. However, Louisiana State Act 159 makes the substance illegal to grow, cultivate, harvest or sell in that state if intended for ingestion. The act applies to more than 40 types of plants. [3] Tennessee proposed a bill that would have made many "hallucinogenic" plants, including Calea zacatechichi, illegal when "intended for human consumption," but the law was changed to only ban Salvia divinorum. [4]

Amanita muscaria, commonly known as the fly agaric or fly Amanita, is a poisonous and psychoactive basidiomycete fungus, one of many in the genus Amanita. Native throughout the temperate and boreal regions of the Northern Hemisphere, Amanita muscaria has been unintentionally conveyed to many countries in the Southern Hemisphere, generally as a symbiont with pine plantations, and is now a true cosmopolitan species. It associates with various deciduous and coniferous trees. The quintessential toadstool, it is a large imposing white-gilled, white-spotted, usually deep red mushroom, one of the most recognizable and widely encountered in popular culture. Though it is generally considered poisonous, Amanita muscaria is otherwise famed for its hallucinogenic properties with its main psychoactive constituent being the compound muscimol. The mushroom has had a religious significance in Siberian culture and possibly also in ancient Indian and Scandinavian cultures. The common names in English, fly agaric or fly mushroom, are generally thought to derive from its European use as an insecticide, sprinkled in milk.[1] This interpretation is supported by the mushroom's names in a number of other languages (see below), e.g. French Amanite tue-mouches, i.e. "fly-killer amanita". The fly-killing agent is now known to be ibotenic acid.[2] Another compound isolated from the fungus is 1,3-diolein which is an insect attractor.[3] [4] An alternate derivation proposes that the term fly- refers not to insects as such but rather the delirium resulting from consumption of the fungus. This is based on the medieval belief that flies could enter a person's head and cause mental illness.[5] Contents [hide] * 1 Taxonomy and naming o 1.1 Classification * 2 Description * 3 Distribution and habitat * 4 Biochemistry o 4.1 Toxicity o 4.2 Psychoactive properties * 5 Cultural history * 6 In popular culture o 6.1 Art o 6.2 Literature and Entertainment o 6.3 Christmas decorations and Santa Claus * 7 References * 8 Further reading * 9 External links [edit] Taxonomy and naming Similar to its English common name, the German, Fliegenpilz, Dutch Vliegenzwam, Swedish Röd flugsvamp, Danish Rød fluesvamp, Finnish punakärpässieni, Polish muchomór, Slovak muchotrávka and French Amanite tue-mouches, are derived from this property. The various common names come from its European use as an insecticide, sprinkled in milk. Fly agaric is still used in this manner in parts of eastern Europe such as Poland and Romania. This practice was first recorded by Albertus Magnus in his work De vegetabilibus sometime before 1256, commenting: vocatur fungus muscarum, eo quod in lacte pulverizatus interficit muscas ("It is called the mushroom of flies, because crushed in milk it kills flies")[6] This was known to Linnaeus who officially described it in Volume Two of his Species Plantarum in 1753, giving it the name Agaricus muscarius,[7] the specific epithet deriving from Latin musca meaning "fly".[8] It gained its current name in 1783, when placed in the genus Amanita by Jean-Baptiste Lamarck and sanctioned by Elias Magnus Fries. In England and Sweden it was also used for getting rid of bugs, and bug agaric was an old alternate name.[6] Amanita muscaria is the type species of the genus Amanita. By extension, it is also the type species of Amanita subgenus Amanita, as well as section Amanita within this subgenus. Amanita subgenus Amanita includes all Amanita with inamyloid spores. Amanita section Amanita includes those species with patchy universal veil remnants, including a volva that is reduced to a series of concentric rings and the veil remnants on the pileus being a series of patches or warts. Most species in this group also have a bulbous base.[9] [10] [edit] Classification Amanita section Amanita consists of A. muscaria and its close relatives, including A. pantherina (the panther agaric), Amanita gemmata, A. farinosa, and A. xanthocephala.[11] Modern fungal taxonomists have classified Amanita muscaria and its allies this way based on gross morphology and spore inamyloidy. Two recent molecular phylogenetic studies have confirmed this classification as natural.[12] [13] Amanita muscaria var. guessowii has a yellow cap surface.Middlesex Fells, Massachusetts Amanita muscaria var. guessowii has a yellow cap surface. Middlesex Fells, Massachusetts Amanita muscaria has considerable morphological variation and many authorities recognize a number of subspecies or varieties within the species. In The Agaricales in Modern Taxonomy, Rolf Singer listed three subspecies, though without description: A. muscaria ssp. muscaria, A. muscaria ssp. americana, and A. muscaria ssp. flavivolvata.[9] Contemporary authorities recognize up to seven varieties: * var. muscaria, the typical red-and-white spotted variety. Some authorities, such as Rodham Tulloss, only use this name for Eurasian and western Alaskan populations.[10] [14] * var. flavivolvata is red, with yellow to yellowish-white warts, and occurs in the western regions of the North American continent, from southern Alaska down through the Rocky Mountains, through Central America, to at least Andean Colombia. Rodham Tulloss uses this name to describe all "typical" A. muscaria from indigenous New World populations from Alaska southward.[10] [15] * var. alba, an uncommon fungus, has a white to silvery white cap with white warts but otherwise similar to the usual form.[10] [16] * var. formosa, has a yellow to orange-yellow cap with yellowish or tan warts and stem. Some authorities use this name for all A. muscaria fitting this description worldwide (cf, Jenkins), others (cf, Tulloss) restrict its use to Eurasian populations.[10] [17] * var. guessowii is yellow to orange, with center of cap more orange or reddish orange than the outer part. It is found throughout North America, but is most common in northeastern North America, from Newfoundland and Quebec down to Tennessee. Some authorities (cf, Jenkins) treat these populations as part of A. muscaria var. formosa, while others (cf, Tulloss) recognize it as a distinct variety.[10] [17] * var. persicina is pinkish to orangish "melon" colored with poorly formed or absent remnants of universal veil on the stem and vasal bulb, known from the Southeastern Coastal areas of the U.S.A, described in 1977.[10] [18] * var. regalis (= Amanita regalis (Fr.) Michael), from Scandinavia and Alaska,[19] is liver-brown and has yellow warts. It appears to be uniformly distinctive and some authorities (cf, Tulloss) treat it as a separate species, while others (cf, Jenkins) treat it as a variety of A. muscaria.[10] [20] A 2006 molecular phylogenetic study of different regional populations of A. muscaria by Geml, et al. found three distinct clades within this species representing, roughly, Eurasian, Eurasian "subalpine", and North American populations. (Alaska contains examples of all three clades, leading to the hypothesis that this was the center of diversification of this species.) The study also looked at four named varieties of this species; var. alba, var. flavivolvata, var. formosa (including var. guessowii), and var. regalis from both areas. All four varieties were found within both the Eurasian and North American clades, evidence that these morphological forms are simply polymorphisms found throughout the species rather than distinct subspecies or varieties.[21] [edit] Description A mature Amanita muscaria, showing a flat pileusnear Tyndrum, Scotland A mature Amanita muscaria, showing a flat pileus near Tyndrum, Scotland A large conspicuous mushroom, Amanita muscaria is generally common and numerous where it grows, often being found in groups with basidiocarps in all stages of development. Fully grown, the bright red cap is usually around 8-20 cm (3-8 inches) in diameter, though larger specimens have been found. The red colour may fade after rain and in older mushrooms. After emerging from the ground, the cap is covered with numerous small white to yellow flecks (warts) which are remnants of the universal veil, a membrane that encloses the entire mushroom when it is still very young. The gills are white, as is the spore print. The stem is white, 5-20 cm high (approximately 2-8 inches), with a basal bulb that bears universal veil remnants (more or less distinct rings or ruffs), and has the slightly brittle, fibrous texture typical of many large mushrooms. Between the basal universal veil remnants and gills are remnants of the partial veil (which covers the gills during development) in the form of a white ring (annulus). It can be quite wide and flaccid in age. There is generally no associated smell other than a mild earthiness.[22] Fly agaric fruiting bodies emerge from the soil looking like a white egg, covered in the white warty material of the universal veil. As the fungus grows, the red colour appears through the broken veil, and the cap changes from hemispherical to plate-like and flat in mature specimens.[23] spores under microscopy spores under microscopy Though very distinctive, the fly agaric has been mistaken for other yellow to red species in the Americas such as Armillaria cf. mellea and the edible Amanita basii, a Mexican species similar to A. caesarea of Europe. Poison control centers in the U.S. and Canada are aware that "amarillo" is a common name of caesarea-like species in Mexico, not just the Spanish for 'yellow'. Amanita caesarea can be distinguished as it has an entire orange red cap, lacking the numerous white warty spots of the fly agaric. Furthermore the stem, gills and ring are bright yellow, not white.[24] Finally the volva is a distinct white bag, not broken into scales.[25] In Australia, the introduced fly agaric may be confused with the local Amanita xanthocephala, which grows in association with Eucalypts. This species also generally lacks the white warts of A. muscaria and bears no ring. [edit] Distribution and habitat A. muscaria in a pine woodland of Pinus sylvestris. A. muscaria in a pine woodland of Pinus sylvestris. A. muscaria is a cosmopolitan mushroom, native to birch, pine, spruce, fir and cedar woodlands throughout the temperate and boreal regions of the Northern Hemisphere,[21] including high elevations of warmer latitudes in regions like the Hindu Kush, the Mediterranean and Central America. Interestingly, a recent molecular study proposes an ancestral origin in the Siberian–Beringian region in the Tertiary period before radiating outwards across Asia, Europe and North America.[21] Though generally encountered in autumn, the season can vary in different climates: fruiting occurs in summer and autumn across most of North America, but later in autumn and early winter on the Pacific coast. It is often found in similar locations to Boletus edulis.[3] It has been widely transported into the southern hemisphere, including Australia,[26] New Zealand, South Africa[27] and South America, where it usually occurs under introduced pine trees. The fungal equivalent of a weed in southeastern Australia, it appears to have formed new associations with southern beech (Nothofagus) in Tasmania and Victoria and invading native rain forest, where there are concerns it may be displacing native species.[28] Furthermore it appears to be spreading northwards with recent reports near Port Macquarie on the New South Wales north coast.[29] When imported to a new country, A. muscaria can jump to native species (for example, Eucalyptus in Australia). It can then be exported with its new symbiont (for example, from Australia to Argentina). [edit] Biochemistry Amanita muscaria contains a number of biologically active agents, at least two of which are known to be psychoactive. Muscimol (3hydroxy-5-aminomethy-1 isoxazole, an unsaturated cyclic hydroxamic acid) is the most significant. It is the product of the decarboxylation or drying of ibotenic acid, another important compound in the biochemistry of the fly agaric. Muscarine, discovered in 1869,[30] was long thought to be the active hallucinogenic agent in A. muscaria until the mid 20th century,[31] [32] when researchers in England,[33] Japan,[34] and Switzerland[35] recognized that these effects were due mainly to ibotenic acid and muscimol.[3] Ibotenic acid and muscimol are structurally related to two major neurotransmitters of the central nervous system: glutamic acid and GABA respectively. Ibotenic acid and muscimol act like these neurotransmitters (muscimol is a potent GABAA agonist) which are involved in the control of neuronal activity. It is these interactions which are thought to cause the brain dysfunction found in intoxication. Following ingestion some of the ibotenic acid is decarboxylated to muscimol which would appear to be the agent responsible for the majority of the psychoactivity.[5][36] When muscimol is administered, it has been shown active in the cerebral cortex, hippocampus, and cerebellum.[citation needed] Muscazone is another compound more recently isolated from European specimens of the fly agaric. It is a product of the breakdown of ibotenic acid by ultra-violet radiation.[37] It is of minor pharmacological activity compared with the other agents.[5] Muscarine binds with Muscarinic acetylcholine receptor and lead to the excitation of the neurons bearing these receptors. The levels in Amanita muscaria are minute when compared with other poisonous fungi,[38] such as the deadly Inocybe patouillardii or small white Clitocybe species C. dealbata and C. rivulosa. Amanita muscaria growing in autumn Scottish woodland Amanita muscaria growing in autumn Scottish woodland [edit] Toxicity Victims of Amanita muscaria poisoning are generally either young children or people ingesting it for a hallucinogenic experience.[3] About one gram of A. muscaria or 50-100 mg ibotenic acid is considered a toxic dose.[39] [40] Ibotenic acid, a compound present in A. muscaria, is a powerful neurotoxin that is used as a "brain-lesioning agent" and has shown to be highly neurotoxic when "injected directly into the brains of mice and rats."[41] Fly agarics are known for the unpredictability of their effects. Depending on habitat and the amount ingested per body weight, effects can range from nausea and twitching to drowsiness, cholinergic effects (low blood pressure, sweating and salivation), auditory and visual distortions, mood changes, euphoria, relaxation, and loss of equilibrium. Retrograde amnesia frequently results following recovery.[42] [43] [36] In cases of serious poisoning it causes a delirium, characterized by bouts of marked agitation with confusion, hallucinations, and irritability followed by periods of central nervous system depression. Seizures and coma may also occur in severe poisonings.[36] Effects typically appear after around 30 to 90 minutes and peak within three hours, but certain effects can last for a number of days. [39][44] In the majority of cases recovery is complete within 12 hours. The effect is highly variable and individuals can react quite differently to the similar doses.[42][39] [45] Deaths from A. muscaria are extremely rare. A historical journal article reported 2 fatalities occurring in North America. [46] With modern medical treatment the prognosis is generally good.[47] The amount and ratio of chemical compounds per mushroom varies widely from region to region, season to season, further confusing the issue. It has been reported that spring and summer mushrooms may contain up to 10 times as much ibotenic/muscimol as compared to fall fruitings.[42] Many older books list it as deadly, giving the impression that it is far more toxic than it really is. The vast majority of mushroom poisoning fatalities (90% or more) are from having eaten either the greenish to yellowish to brownish mottled death cap (A. phalloides) or one of the destroying angels (Amanita virosa). The toxic substances of A. muscaria are water soluble and susceptible to heat. The mushroom can be at least partly detoxified by thoroughly parboiling or leaching it in boiling water because it is said[weasel words]that the ibotenic acid turns into muscimol under this heat. This supposedly[weasel words] removes several unpleasant side effects due to the conversion of the much more toxic ibotenic acid into muscimol. According to some sources, once detoxified, the mushroom becomes edible.[48] In Sanada, Japan fly agarics are detoxified by pickling them. [49] [edit] Psychoactive properties A basket of A. muscaria. A basket of A. muscaria. In contrast to hallucinogenic mushrooms of the Psilocybe, Amanita muscaria is rarely consumed recreationally.[50] It is unscheduled in the United States. Any sales of A. muscaria for human ingestion are regulated by the FDA. Most other countries do not have laws against the use of A. muscaria, as it is currently legal and un-controlled under UN international law. However, following the outlawing of psilocybin containing mushrooms in the UK, an increased quantity of Amanita mushrooms began to be sold and consumed.[51] The active ingredient is excreted in the urine of those consuming the mushrooms, and it has sometimes been the practice for a shaman to consume the mushrooms, and the rest of the tribe to drink his urine: the shaman, in effect, partially detoxifying the drug (the sweat- and twitch-causing muscarine is absent in the urine).[52] This was also not an uncommon practice in Siberia, where the poor would consume the urine of the wealthy, who could afford to buy the mushrooms.[52] If a fly agaric is eaten, it is usually not fresh, but in its dried or cooked form, where ibotenic acid is converted to the more stable and far less poisonous muscimol. [edit] Cultural history Group of Amanita muscaria, Westerholter Wald, Gelsenkirchen, Germany. Group of Amanita muscaria, Westerholter Wald, Gelsenkirchen, Germany. A. muscaria was widely used as a hallucinogenic drug by many of the peoples of Siberia. Its use was known among almost all of the Uralic-speaking peoples of western Siberia and the Paleosiberian-speaking peoples of eastern Siberia. However, there are only isolated reports of A. muscaria use among the Tungusic and Turkic peoples of central Siberia and it is believed that hallucinogenic use of A. muscaria was largely not a practice of these peoples.[53] [52] In western Siberia, the use of A. muscaria was restricted to shamans, who used it as an alternate method of achieving a trance state. (Normally, Siberian shamans achieve a trance state by prolonged drumming and dancing.) In eastern Siberia, A. muscaria was used by both shamans and laypeople alike, and was used recreationally as well as religiously.[53] The Koryak of eastern Siberia have a story about the fly agaric (wapaq) which enabled Big Raven to carry a whale to its home. In the story, the deity Vahiyinin ("Existence") spat onto earth, and his spittle became the wapaq, and his saliva becomes the warts. After experiencing the power of the wapaq, Raven was so exhilarated that he told it to grow forever on earth so his children, the people, can learn from it.[6] Beyond Siberia, there are only isolated and unconfirmed reports of the hallucinogenic use of A. muscaria. One source mentions that it was once used among the Sami people, but no firsthand accounts of this exist.[52] Hartmut Geerken claims to have discovered a tradition of recreational use of this mushroom among a Parachi-speaking group in Afghanistan.[54] There are also unconfirmed reports of religious use of A. muscaria among two Subarctic Native American tribes, the Ojibway[55] [56] and the Dogrib.[57] There are also claims that A. muscaria played in important role in a number of ancient religious rites, though these claims tend to be speculative and highly controversial. The best known of these claims is R. Gordon Wasson's proposition that A. muscaria was the Soma talked about in Rig Veda of India,[52] and is less often also thought to be the amrita talked about in Buddhist scriptures.[58] (For more details on this topic, see Botanical identity of Soma-Haoma.) The British writer Robert Graves theorizes in a preface to his book, The Greek Myths, that the Dionysian rites were conducted under the influence of this mushroom.[59] John Marco Allegro argues in The Sacred Mushroom and the Cross that the Christian religion is derived from a sex and psychedelic mushroom cult,[60], although his theory has found little support by scholars outside the field of ethnomycology. In Magic Mushrooms in Religion and Alchemy (formerly called Strange Fruit) Clark Heinrich interprets A. muscaria usage by Adam and Eve, Moses, Elijah and Elisha, Isiah, Ezekiel, Jonah, Jesus and his disciples, and John of Patmos.[61] In the book Apples of Apollo the mushroom is identified in a wide range of mythological tales such as those involving Perseus, Prometheus, Heracles, Jason and the Argonauts, Jesus and the Holy Grail.[62] The notion that Nordic Vikings used A. muscaria to produce their berserker rages was first suggested by the Swedish professor Samuel Ödman in 1784.[63] Ödman based his theories on reports about the use of fly agaric among Siberian shamans. The notion has become widespread since the 19th century, but no contemporary sources mention this use or anything similar in their description of berserkers. Today, it is generally considered an urban legend or at best speculation that cannot be proven. On the whole, Muscimol, the psychoactive ingredient, is a mild relaxant, but it is widely known, as with all drugs that it can create a range of reactions within a range of people [64] and it is possible that it could make a person incredibly angry, as well as make them "very jolly or sad, [jump] about, [dance], [sing] or [give] way to great fright". [65] Ethnobotanist and ethnomycologist Giorgio Samorini suggests in his book "Animals and Psychedelics" a symbiotic relationship between toads, flies and fly agaric. Flies, after a lick of A. muscaria become inebriated and delirious prey for hungry toads that may have learned this, therefore hanging out around toadstools. This relationship within nature illuminates an etymological keystone and example of zoopharmacognosy. This would also provide further biosemiotic insight into the ancient mystery of toads, flies and mushrooms appearing together in popular mythology and fairy lore. However it is more commonly thought that toads are associated with the mushroom because they symbolise toxicity and chthonic forces in the same way that serpents do. Authors of Sacred Soma Shamans Hawk and Venus have used A. muscaria as a sacrament and daily medicinal tonic since 1979.[66] North American shamans claim that proper handling and use results in higher levels of consciousness. [edit] In popular culture The classic shape, well known in popular culture. The classic shape, well known in popular culture. A Super Mushroom as seen in Mario Kart: Double Dash!! A Super Mushroom as seen in Mario Kart: Double Dash!! The red-and-white spotted toadstool is a common image in many aspects of popular culture, especially in children's books, film and more recently computer games; a partly grown A. muscaria, as shown right, is clearly the fungus which this icon is based on. [edit] Art Images dating back to 3500BC painted in caves at Tassili, Algeria, depict mushrooms, more than likely including A. muscaria mushrooms according to scholars [1], although a Psilocybe species has also been suggested. Fly agarics have been featured in paintings since the Renaissance [2], albeit in a subtle manner. In the Victorian era they became more visible, even becoming the main topic of some fairy paintings [3], usually inspired by Shakespeare's A Midsummer Night's Dream. The waning of Romanticism and the advent of World War I reduced interest in fairies along with fly agarics, reducing them to the realm of childish fantasies. [edit] Literature and Entertainment Garden ornaments, and children's picture books depicting gnomes and fairies, such as the Smurfs, very often show fly agarics used as seats, or homes; it is rather uncommon for any other identifiable mushroom to be shown in this role. Two of the most famous uses of the mushroom are in the video game series Super Mario Bros. and the dancing mushroom sequence in the 1940 Disney film Fantasia.[6] [edit] Christmas decorations and Santa Claus Christmas card from 1903-1904 Christmas card from 1903-1904 Fly agarics appear on Christmas cards and New Year cards [4] from around the world as a symbol of good luck. They also function as Christmas tree decorations [5], derived from their ectomycorrhizal relationship with coniferous trees. The ethnobotanist Jonathan Ott has suggested that the idea of Santa Claus and tradition of hanging stockings over the fireplace is based centrally upon the fly agaric mushroom itself.[45] With its generally red and white color scheme, he argues that Santa Claus's suit is related to the mushroom. He also draws parallels with flying reindeer: reindeer are said to enjoy the mushroom because of its euphoric results, and therefore prance around in a hallucinogenic after-effect.[citation needed] It is true that reindeer will eat fly agarics, but there is no proof that it has any kind of mental effects on them.[citation needed] Until the 20th century the red-and-white Santa suit familiar today was not firmly established, although Saint Nicholas, on which Santa Claus is partly based, was always depicted in red (see also: Origins of Santa Claus). One scholar researching possible links between religious myths and the red mushroom notes, "If Santa Claus had but one eye [like Odin], or if magic urine had been a part of his legend, his connection to the Amanita muscaria would be much easier to believe."[58] Ott also speculates about Santa's bag of toys. According to historians, ancient Siberia was one of the first civilizations to use fly agaric in practice.[citation needed] The Siberian hut, or yurt, is equipped with a smokehole at the top. Ott suggests that a shaman entered the yurt through the smokehole with a sack of mushrooms in his hand, to be placed in stockings over the fireplace where they could be dried for celebratory use.

Traditional usage Anadenanthera peregrina 1916 Anadenanthera peregrina 1916 Archeological evidence shows Anadenanthera beans have been used as hallucinogens for thousands of years. The oldest clear evidence of use comes from smoking pipes made of puma bone (Felis Concolor) found with Anadenanthera beans at Inca Cueva, a site in the northwest of Humahuaca in the Puna border of the Province of Jujuy, Argentina. The pipes were found to contain the hallucinogen DMT, one of the compounds found in Anadenanthera beans. Radiocarbon testing of the material gave a date of 2130 B.C., suggesting Anadenanthera use as a hallucinogen is over 4000 years old.[11] Snuff trays and tubes similar to those commonly used for yopo were found in the central Peruvian coast dating back to 1200 B.C., suggesting that insufflation of Anadenanthera beans is a more recent method of use.[12] Some indigenous peoples of the Orinoco basin in Colombia, Venezuela and possibly in the southern part of the Brazilian Amazon make use of yopo snuff for spiritual healing. Yopo snuff was also widely used in ceremonial contexts in the Caribbean area, including Cuba and La Española, up to the Spanish Conquest. Yopo snuff is usually blown into the user's nostrils by another person through bamboo tubes or sometimes snuffed by the user using bird bone tubes. Blowing is more effective as this method allows more powder to enter the nose and is said to be less irritating. In some areas the unprocessed ground beans are snuffed or smoked producing a much weaker effect with stronger physical symptoms. Some tribes use yopo along with Banisteriopsis caapi to increase and prolong the visionary effects, creating an experience similar to that of ayahuasca. [edit] Snuff preparation To make the psychedelic snuff called yopo, the black beans from the bean pods of these trees are first toasted until the beans pop like popcorn breaking the bean's husk. The roasting process facilitates removal of the husk and makes the beans easier to grind into a powder. The bean's husk is usually removed because it is difficult to powderise. The bean is then ground with a mortar and pestle into a powder and mixed with a natural form of calcium hydroxide (lime) or calcium oxide (from certain types of ashes, calcined shells, etc.). This mix is then moistened to a consistency similar to bread dough, using a small amount of water. If calcium oxide is used, the water will react with it to form calcium hydroxide. Once moistened, it is kneaded into a ball for several minutes. If given enough time, calcium hydroxide will react with bufotenine and replace the hydrogen bond at the five position of bufotenine (5-HO-DMT) with calcium, forming Ca + 5-O-DMT, also known as calcium bufotenate (or calcium bufotenoxide). This is a common chemical reaction that occurs with all phenolic compounds when reacted with calcium hydroxide for expended periods of time (see phenol for more information). Several hours are needed for the reaction to take place. Ca + 5-O-DMT is less toxic, and produces effects more like DMT and Psilocin than the classic toxic effects of bufotenine. Its effects last normally 2-3 hours. After kneading, it is then left to sit for several hours to several days, depending on the local customs. During this period most of the excess calcium hydroxide reacts with the carbon dioxide in the air to form less caustic calcium carbonate (carbonatation). The more modern non-traditional use of baking soda or ammonia as a substitute for calcium hydroxide has been used with limited success. A nearly identical snuff called Vilca, can be prepared from the related Anadenanthera colubrina. [edit] Entheogenic effects Shamans use yopo in a spiritual context much like ayahuasca is used. Use of yopo may actually predate Ayahuasca usage. Many shamans believe the visionary dream-state induced by yopo allows them to contact spirits in the spirit world to gain knowledge about medicinal plants, how to treat an illness, etc. The effects of properly made insufflated yopo are similar to the effects of vaporized DMT but much longer in duration. The effects begin approximately 15-30 minutes after insufflation and can last up to 2-3 hours. The insufflation process can be painful due to remaining calcium hydroxide, especially when using snuff that hasn’t been properly aged. The effects are can be visual in nature, causing the user to see colorful patterns, objects seen with the eyes may appear to be swirling, transforming into other objects, changing colors, etc. The user may see colorful 3-dimensional moving patterns with the eyes opened or closed. Some users experience more visual effects from yopo than from DMT. The user may hear dreamy sounds and voices. With the eyes closed or in a dark setting, users may experience full dream-like phenomena, interacting with imaginary places, people, etc. The visions are seen as dreamy or spiritual in nature and do not appear as though they are real. The over effects are generally relaxing. Users often feel a pleasant tingling sensation throughout the body similar to those felt while using Yohimbe. The mind normally remains clear and focused during the entire experience. Some users may experience transient nausea. At high doses, users may feel sweaty, become nervous, experience difficulty it walking, lose motor control, and may enter into a trance state. Shamans sometimes combine yopo with Banisteriopsis caapi. The Banisteriopsis caapi is usually chewed before, during, and after yopo is insufflated. This intensifies and prolongs the visionary state produced by yopo. The combined effects are more dream-like and very similar to ayahuasca.

Usage Ayahuasca is used largely as a religious sacrament, no matter which culture it is associated with. Those whose usage of ayahuasca is performed in non-traditional contexts often align themselves with the philosophies and cosmologies associated with ayahuasca shamanism, as practiced among indigenous peoples like the Urarina of Peruvian Amazonia. While non-native users know of the spiritual applications of ayahuasca, a less well-known traditional usage focuses on the medicinal properties of ayahuasca. Its purgative properties are highly important (many refer to it as la Purga, "the purge"). The intense vomiting and occasional diarrhea it induces can clear the body of worms and other tropical parasites,[7] and harmala alkaloids themselves have been shown to be anthelmintic[8]. Thus, this action is twofold; a direct action on the parasites by these harmala alkaloids (particularly harmine in ayahuasca) works to kill the parasites, and parasites are expelled through the increased intestinal motility that is caused by these alkaloids. Ayahuasca cooking in the Napo region of Ecuador. Ayahuasca cooking in the Napo region of Ecuador. Dietary taboos are almost always associated with the use of Ayahuasca; in the rainforest, these tend towards the purification of one's self - abstaining from spicy and heavily seasoned foods, fat, salt, caffeine, acidic foods (such as citrus) and sex before, after, or both before and after a ceremony. A diet low in foods containing tyramine has been recommended, as the speculative interaction of tyramine and MAOIs could lead to a hypertensive crisis. However, evidence indicates that harmala alkaloids act only on MAO-A, in a reversible way similar to moclobemide (a antidepressive that does not require dietary restrictions). Psychonautic experiments and absence of diet restrictions in the highly urban Brazilian ayahuasca church União do Vegetal also suggest that the risk is much lower than conceived, and probably non-existent [9]. Today, the name 'ayahuasca' can mean a variety of botanical concoctions containing one or more MAOIs and DMT or one of its chemical analogues. The synthetic pharmahuasca is sometimes called ayahuasca as well. In this usage, the DMT is generally considered the main psychoactive active ingredient, while the MAOI merely preserves the psychoactivity of orally ingested DMT, which would otherwise be destroyed in the gut before it could be absorbed in the body. Most ayahuasqueros and others working with the brew claim the B. caapi vine to be the defining ingredient; according to them, it is not ayahuasca unless B. caapi is in the brew. The vine is considered to be the "spirit" of ayahuasca, the gatekeeper and guide to the otherworldly realms. In some areas, it is even said that the chakruna or chaliponga admixtures are added only to make the brew taste sweeter. This is a strong indicator of the often wildly divergent intentions and cultural differences between the native ayahuasca-using cultures and psychedelics enthusiasts in other countries. In modern Europe and North America, ayahuasca analogues are often prepared using non-traditional plants which contain the same alkaloids. For example, seeds of the Syrian rue plant are often used as a substitute for the ayawaska vine, and the DMT-rich Mimosa hostilis is used in place of chakruna. Australia has several indigenous plants which are popular among modern ayahuasqueros there, such as various DMT-rich species of Acacia. In modern Western culture, entheogen users sometimes base concoctions on Ayahuasca. When doing so, most often Rue or B. caapi are used with an alternative form of the DMT molecule, such as psilocin, or a non-DMT based hallucinogen such as mescaline. Nicknames such as Psilohuasca, Mush-rue-asca, or 'Shroom-a-huasca, for mushroom based mixtures, or Pedrohuasca (from the San Pedro Cactus, which contains mescaline) are often given to such brews. Such nicknames are by many considered inappropriate and culturally insensitive seeing as "huasca" means "vine" and none of the above are vines, nor do the psychedelic experimentalist trappings of such concoctions bear any resemblance to the medicinal use of Ayahuasca in its original cultural context. This is usually only done by experienced entheogen users who are more familiar with the chemicals and plants being used, as the uninformed combination of various neuro-chemicals can be dangerous. It seems unlikely that Ayahuasca could ever emerge as a "street-drug", given the difficulty of making the tea and the intense experience it provides. Most Western users employ it almost exclusively for spiritual purposes, in line with both traditional, animist usage and organized churches such as the União do Vegetal (or UDV). With the exception of UDV, a diet is almost always followed before use, including a day of fasting. In traditional settings, the "dieta" is followed to spiritually cleanse the body before and after the experience. [edit] Introduction to the West Ayahuasca is mentioned in the writings of some of the earliest missionaries to South America, but it wasn't for some time that it became commonly known in the West. The early missionary reports generally claim it as demonic, and great efforts were made by the Roman Catholic Church to stamp it out. When originally researched in the 20th century, the active chemical constituent of B. caapi was called telepathine, but it was found to be identical to a chemical already isolated from Peganum harmala and given the name harmaline. William Burroughs sought yagé (still considered to be "telepathine") in the 1950s while traveling through South America, in the hopes that it could relieve or cure opiate addiction. The Yage Letters, written between Burroughs and Allen Ginsberg were probably the first major introduction of Ayahuasca to the West. Ayahuasca was made more widely known by Terence and Dennis McKenna's experiences with Amazonian tribes as detailed in the book Invisible Landscape, which they co-authored. Their journey to the rainforest to search for Ayahuasca was spurred by their reading of Burroughs and Ginsberg. Dennis later extensively studied the pharmacology, botany, and chemistry of ayahuasca and oo-koo-he, which were the subjects of his master's thesis. In Brazil, a number of modern religious movements based on the use of ayahuasca have emerged, the most famous of them being Santo Daime and the União do Vegetal (or UDV), usually in an animistic context that may be shamanistic or, more often (as with Santo Daime and the UDV), integrated with Christianity. Both Santo Daime and União do Vegetal now have members and churches throughout the world. Similarly, the US and Europe have started to see new religious groups develop in relation to increased ayahuasca use. PaDeva, an American Wiccan group, has become the first incorporated legal church which holds the use of ayahuasca central to their beliefs. Several notable celebrities have publicly discussed their use of ayahuasca, including Sting, Tori Amos, and Paul Simon (who wrote the song Spirit Voices about his experience with the brew in the Amazon). Some Westerners have teamed up with shamans in the Amazon rainforest regions, forming Ayahuasca healing retreats that claim to be able to cure mental and physical illness and allow communication with the spirit world. Anecdotal reports and scientific studies affirm that ritualized use of ayahuasca may improve mental and physical health,[10] but it poses a potential risk for a psychotic outbreaks in susceptible individuals. [edit] "Ayahuasca tourism" "Ayahuasca tourist" is a pejorative term for those who quest for a transcendent experience through using ayahuasca, implying an insincere Westerner wanting a taste of an exotic ritual, however all Westerners who have teamed up with Amazonian shamans are considered "ayahuasca tourists", or provide modified services geared specifically towards Westerners. Pilgrims and seekers of spiritual knowledge have come to Argentina, Brazil, Colombia, or Mexico have also come for ayahuasca healing as well as explorers of consciousness, writers, medical doctors, journalists, amateur anthropologists and ethnobotanists. The retreats offer the encounter with ayahuasca as an opportunity to re-balance and re-centre their lives, to clear emotional blocks, in a way that has to do with healing and personal evolution. [edit] Initiation Usually a visitor who wishes to becomes a "dietero" or "dietera" that is, a male or female apprentice-shaman learning the way of the teacher plants undergoes a rigorous initiation. This can involve spending a year in the jungle. This initiation challenges and trains the initiate through extreme circumstances covering isolation, deprivation from utilities available in civilization and its conveniences, enduring radical weather of heavy rains, storms, intense heat, insects and solitude.[citation needed] [edit] Modern descriptions Wade Davis (author of The Serpent and The Rainbow) describes the traditional mixture as tough in his book One River: "The smell and acrid taste was that of the entire jungle ground up and mixed with bile." [p.194] Writer Kira Salak describes her personal experiences with ayahuasca in the March 2006 issue of [National Geographic Adventure] magazine. The article includes a candid description of how ayahuasca cured her depression, as well as provides detailed information about the brew. Here is an excerpt from the article about Dr. Charles Grob's landmark findings: The taking of ayahuasca has been associated with a long list of documented cures: the disappearance of everything from metastasized colorectal cancer to cocaine addiction, even after just a ceremony or two. It has been medically proven to be nonaddictive and safe to ingest. Yet Western scientists have all but ignored it for decades, reluctant to risk their careers by researching a substance containing the outlawed DMT. Only in the past decade, and then only by a handful of researchers, has ayahuasca begun to be studied. At the vanguard of this research is Charles Grob, M.D., a professor of psychiatry and pediatrics at UCLA’s School of Medicine. In 1993 Dr. Grob launched the Hoasca Project, the first in-depth study of the physical and psychological effects of ayahuasca on humans. His team went to Brazil, where the plant mixture can be taken legally, to study members of a church, the União do Vegetal (UDV), who use ayahuasca as a sacrament, and compared them to a control group that had never ingested the substance. The studies found that all the ayahuasca-using UDV members had experienced remission without recurrence of their addictions, depression, or anxiety disorders. Unlike most common anti-depressants, which Grob says can create such high levels of serotonin that cells may actually compensate by losing many of their serotonin receptors, the Hoasca Project showed that ayahuasca strongly enhances the body’s ability to absorb the serotonin that’s naturally there. 'Ayahuasca is perhaps a far more sophisticated and effective way to treat depression than SSRIs [antidepressant drugs],' Grob concludes, adding that the use of SSRIs is 'a rather crude way' of doing it. And ayahuasca, he insists, has great potential as a long-term solution.